Punctuation

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Comma Rules

1. Use commas to separate items in a series. What is a ”series”? A “series” is a list of 3 or more items, the last two of which are joined by **//and//**, **//or//**, or **//nor//**.

EXAMPLES: Any of these can be put into sentence form. The important things to remember about using commas in series are these: 1. A series includes 3 or more items of the same type (words or groups of words). 2. The series is connected by **//and//**, **//or//**, or **//nor//** before the last item. 3. A comma separates items in the series, including the final item preceded by **//and//**, **//or//**, or **//nor//**.

2. Use commas between coordinate adjectives.

What are “coordinate adjectives”?

“Coordinate adjectives” are adjectives placed next to each other that are equal in importance.

Two tests to determine whether adjectives are coordinate are the following: 1. See whether “and” can be smoothly placed between them. 2. See whether the adjectives’ order can be reversed.

Look at this example. In this example, a comma belongs between **//happy//** and **//lively//** because they are coordinate adjectives. Test to make certain: **First**, try the “and” test__.__ //And// placed between the 2 adjectives sounds smooth. **Second**, try reversing the adjectives. When the adjectives are reversed, the sentence still makes sense. __CAUTION: Not all adjective pairs are coordinate adjectives. Thus, not all adjectives should be separated from one another by a comma.__ __Look at this example.__ In this example, no comma belongs between the two adjectives **//young//** and **//golden//** because they are not coordinate adjectives. How can we know? **First**, try the “and” test. //And// placed between the two adjectives does notnotnot2 independent clausesnotshortshortnot __use commas around essential adjective clauses.__
 * Thus **, **//happy//** and **//lively//** are coordinate adjectives in the example and should be separated by a comma.

 3. Use a comma before **//and, but, or, nor, for, so,//** or **//yet//** to join two independent clauses that form a compound sentence.

What is a compound sentence?

A **//compound sentence//** is a sentence that has 2 independent clauses. An **//independent clause//** is a group of words with a subject and verb that expresses a complete thought. It is also known as a **//simple sentence//**. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. The two independent clauses in a compound sentence can be joined by: A. Semicolons __OR__

B. A comma and one of the seven joining words: **//for, and, nor, but, or, yet,//** and **//so//**. (Taken together, the first letters spell **“FANBOYS.”**) This last type of compound sentence is the one we will concentrate on for comma use. A compound sentence must have two independent clauses – not just two verbs, two nouns, or two groups of words that are not independent clauses. Look at this example. In the above example, two verb groups are being joined by **//and//**. The second verb group does **NOT** have a subject; thus, it is **NOT** an independent clause. Therefore, **NO** comma belongs before **//and//**. This example is a **//simple sentence//** with a **//compound verb//**, not a compound sentence. However, we can make this sentence into a compound sentence by simply making the last verb part into an independent clause__.__ Now we have a “bona fide” compound sentence. The two independent clauses are separated by a comma and the word **//and//**. Here are some other examples which illustrate the difference between compound elements in simple sentences (no comma) and true compound sentences (comma).

4. Place a comma after introductory phrases that tell **//where//**, **//when//**, **//why//**, or **//how//**.

__Example:__ __Usually, it is NOT necessary to use a comma after__ short introductory prepositional phrases. Example: Example: Use a comma even after a __short__ “to” + verb phrase that answers **//why//**. Example: You can tell you have this kind of introductory “to” + verb phrase when you can put the words “in order” in front of the phrase. Example: Be careful! Not all introductory “to” phrases tell **//why//**.  (A “clause” is a group of words with a subject and a verb.) Examples: NOTE: When such a clause comes at the **//end//** of a sentence, do NOT use a comma. Examples:
 * 1. After a long introductory phrase__.__ **
 * 2. After an introductory phrase made up of “to” plus a verb and any modifiers (“infinitive”) that tells //why//. **
 * // when? where? why? how? to what degree? //**

Examples: 2. **Separate a “renamer” (an appositive) from the rest of the sentence with a comma.** Example: Examples: In each instance above, “Mary Roberts ran down the street” comprises the **//essential//** part of the sentence. The adjective phrases are **//nonessential//** and should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. There are two kinds of adjective clauses: - one that is needed for the sentence to be complete (ESSENTIAL) - one that is NOT needed for the sentence to be complete (NONESSENTIAL) The **//essential//** adjective clause should NOT be separated from the sentence with commas. The **//nonessential//** adjective clause (like other nonessential elements) SHOULD be separated with commas. Two examples illustrate the difference: A. B.
 * 1. Separate “interrupter” words like //however//, //nevertheless//, //yes//, //no//, //of course//, from the rest of the sentence. **
 * 3. Separate adjective phrases from the essential parts of the sentence. **
 * (An “adjective” describes or limits a noun.) **
 * 4. . **

Look at example A. If we remove the adjective clause “who robbed the bank,” the sentence reads, “The man was caught today.” Without the adjective clause (“who robbed the bank”), we do not know //which// man was caught. Thus, the adjective clause is needed to complete the sentence’s meaning. In other words, this adjective clause is **//essential//**. As the rule notes, do __not__ use commas around essential adjective clauses. Now look at example B. If we remove the adjective clause “who robbed the bank,” the sentence reads, “Sam Spider was caught today.” Without the adjective clause (“who robbed a bank”), we //do// know which man was caught (Sam Spider). Thus, the adjective clause is NOT needed to complete the sentence’s meaning. In other words, this clause is **//nonessential//**. Following the rule, you should separate this adjective clause from the rest of the sentence. REMEMBER, there are 4 nonessential elements that should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas: 1. “interrupter” words like **//of course//**, **//however//** 2. “renamers” (appositives) 3. nonessential adjective phrases 4. nonessential adjective clauses

Semicolon Rules

**Rule 1:** Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are closely related in theme.

 Independent clause: a word group that contains at least one subject, at least one verb, and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is also called a //sentence//.  The key words in this rule are //closely related in theme//. You should not place semicolons indiscriminately between independent clauses, as in the following example:  Example 1: Jane drove to Phoenix to visit her parents; her parents' dog had to go to the vet.  Clearly, these sentences have nothing to do with each other. The fact that Jane visited her parents in Phoenix is one thing, and the fact that her parents' dog had an appointment with the vet is quite another. A period should be used between unrelated sentences such as these. Semicolons should be placed only between sentences that are closely related in theme, as in the following example:  Example 2: Tom earned his bachelor's degree last summer; his sister earned hers in the fall.  These sentences are related thematically; both discuss academic degrees and when they were earned, so the semicolon is appropriate. Of course, a period would also be appropriate.

 **Rule 2:** Use a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases that join independent clauses.

 **Conjunctive adverb:** adverb that acts as a transition between independent clauses by showing comparison, contrast, cause-effect, sequence, or other relationships.  **Common conjunctive adverbs:** //also, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence, however, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, subsequently, therefore, thus//  **Transitional phrase:** a phrase that acts as a transition between independent clauses by showing comparison, contrast, cause-effect, sequence, or other relationships.  **Common transitional phrases:** //after all, as a matter of fact, as a result, for example, in addition, in conclusion, in other words, on the contrary, on the other hand//

 Example 3: Philip is studying engineering; however, he is also interested in pursuing a degree in music education.  Example 4: Cindy has published several novels; in addition, she has published a volume of poetry.  In each of the previous two examples, you should note two things. First, the sentences joined by the semicolons are closely related in theme, which is the fundamental rule of semicolon placement. Second, note that the semicolon is placed //before// the conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase. This is because the adverb or phrase begins an independent clause. Compare the following examples:  Example 5: Angela fell and injured her leg last month; nevertheless, she was able to compete in the race today. <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> Example 6: Jim has always been an exceptionally hard worker; his coworkers, moreover, have nominated him for employee of the month seven times. <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> In Example 5, the semicolon is placed before the conjunctive adverb //nevertheless// since the adverb begins an independent clause. In Example 6, the semicolon is placed before //his// since //his// signals the beginning of the independent clause. The conjunctive adverb in this sentence //(moreover)// is simply serving as an interrupter.

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> **Rule 3:** To ensure clarity, use a semicolon between items that contain internal punctuation.

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> Compare the following examples: <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> Example 7: For her young son's birthday, Jenny purchased a chocolate cake with chocolate frosting, sprinkles, and candy topping, a pair of shoes with white stripes, laces, and light-up heels, and a new racetrack complete with cars, people figurines, and miniature buildings. <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> Example 8: For her young son's birthday, Jenny purchased a chocolate cake with chocolate frosting, sprinkles, and candy topping; a pair of shoes with white stripes, laces, and light-up heels; and a new racetrack complete with cars, people figurines, and miniature buildings. <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> Example 7 is difficult to read due to its excessive use of commas; because of the internal punctuation within each item in the list, the commas between those items serve only to muddle the writing and confuse the reader. <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> Example 8, which places semicolons between each item, is much clearer. <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> Semicolons are like spices; they shouldn't be overused. As spices complement the main ingredients in a dish, semicolons should complement your writing—not overpower it. When used correctly, semicolons can add variety and increased readability to your writing.

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<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;">Subject Verb Agreement

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